The Iran-Iraq War: A Brutal Conflict's Lasting Scars

Prof. Cathryn Ritchie 24 Jun 2025

The Iran-Iraq War, often referred to as the First Persian Gulf War, stands as one of the 20th century's most devastating and protracted conventional conflicts. Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran in September 1980 and lasted for nearly eight years, until the acceptance of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598 by both sides in August 1988. This brutal war, marked by unprecedented levels of destruction and loss, has had lasting implications for both nations and the broader Middle Eastern landscape.

Understanding what is the Iran-Iraq War requires delving into a complex tapestry of historical grievances, political ambitions, and ideological clashes that ultimately plunged two neighboring nations into a bloody struggle. The conflict claimed hundreds of thousands of lives, displaced millions, and left an indelible mark on the region's geopolitical fabric, whose echoes continue to resonate today.

Understanding the Roots of Conflict

To truly grasp what is the Iran-Iraq War, one must first examine the deep-seated historical and political tensions that simmered between the two nations for decades. The conflict stemmed from a complex mix of historical grievances, ethnic tensions, and political upheavals, particularly following the Iranian Revolution of 1979.

Historical Grievances and Border Disputes

Since its establishment in 1921, Iraq has had a precarious relationship with its eastern neighbor, Iran. The sources of contention between the two countries involved border demarcation, particularly concerning the Shatt al-Arab waterway (known as Arvand Rud in Iran), which serves as a vital artery for both nations' oil exports. Control over this waterway was a perennial point of friction, leading to numerous skirmishes and agreements that often failed to hold. Beyond the physical borders, there was also the desire of both states to prevent the other’s hegemonic aspirations in the Persian Gulf, a region rich in oil and strategic importance. This inherent rivalry for regional dominance set the stage for future confrontations.

The Iranian Revolution's Impact

The overthrow of the Shah in 1979 and the subsequent establishment of a theocratic government under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini dramatically altered the regional balance of power and intensified tensions with Iraq. Relations with Iran had grown increasingly strained after the Shah was overthrown. Iraq, under Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath regime, initially recognized Iran’s new Shiʿi Islamic government. However, the Iranian leaders, particularly Ayatollah Khomeini, would have nothing to do with the Baʿath regime, which they denounced as secular and oppressive. Khomeini, the spiritual leader of the Iranian Revolution, proclaimed his policy of exporting the revolution, openly calling for the overthrow of Arab monarchies and secular governments, including Saddam's. This ideological challenge was perceived by Saddam as a direct threat to his rule and Iraq's stability, especially given Iraq's own Shi'a majority population, which Saddam feared could be swayed by Khomeini's revolutionary fervor.

The Iraqi Invasion and Early Days

The culmination of these mounting tensions was Iraq's decision to launch a full-scale invasion of Iran. This marked the beginning of what is the Iran-Iraq War, a conflict that would defy expectations and drag on for nearly a decade.

Saddam's Ambitions and Miscalculations

Saddam Hussein, seeing Iran in a state of revolutionary turmoil, with its military weakened by purges and its international standing diminished, believed he could achieve a swift victory. His objectives were multi-fold: to seize control of the Shatt al-Arab, annex Iran's oil-rich Khuzestan province (which had a significant Arab population), and establish Iraq as the dominant power in the Persian Gulf. He also aimed to prevent the spread of Iran's Islamic Revolution into Iraq and beyond. However, Saddam gravely miscalculated Iran's resilience and the unifying effect of the external threat on the newly formed Islamic Republic. He envisioned a short, decisive war, much like the Arab-Israeli wars, but what unfolded was a protracted and devastating conflict.

The Initial Onslaught and Iran's Resilience

Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran on September 22, 1980. Iraqi forces launched a massive ground and air assault across a broad front, initially making significant territorial gains. They quickly occupied key border towns and advanced into Khuzestan. However, Iran, despite its internal chaos, mobilized rapidly. The revolutionary guards (Pasdaran), along with volunteer Basij forces and the remnants of the regular army, mounted a fierce resistance. Their deep ideological commitment, coupled with overwhelming human wave attacks, began to push back the Iraqi invaders. By 1982, Iran had largely expelled Iraqi forces from its territory, shifting the war from an Iraqi offensive to an Iranian counter-offensive. This marked a critical turning point, as Iran then aimed to carry the war into Iraqi territory, seeking to overthrow Saddam's regime and establish an Islamic government in Baghdad.

A War of Attrition: Key Characteristics

Once Iranian forces pushed back the initial invasion, what is the Iran-Iraq War became a grueling war of attrition, characterized by trench warfare reminiscent of World War I, large-scale human wave assaults, and the extensive use of chemical weapons. Both sides suffered immense casualties, often in battles for strategically insignificant pieces of land. The war saw the deployment of vast numbers of infantry, particularly by Iran, which relied heavily on its revolutionary zeal and demographic advantage. Iraq, on the other hand, increasingly relied on its superior firepower, including tanks, artillery, and later, chemical weapons, often supplied by various international actors.

The conflict also extended beyond the front lines, with a "War of the Cities" involving missile attacks on civilian centers, and a "Tanker War" in the Persian Gulf, where both sides attacked oil tankers and merchant shipping, disrupting global oil supplies and drawing in external naval powers. The incredibly deadly and destructive nature of the conflict left a long legacy of suffering and devastation, with countless lives lost and vast areas of both countries laid to waste.

Weapons of Mass Destruction and Their Shadow

A chilling aspect of what is the Iran-Iraq War was the proliferation in the development of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), particularly chemical weapons, by Iraq. Saddam Hussein's regime extensively used chemical agents, including mustard gas and nerve agents, against Iranian troops and even against its own Kurdish population, most notably in the Halabja massacre in 1988. This use was largely met with international silence or condemnation that lacked meaningful action, emboldening Iraq. The threat and actual use of these weapons added another layer of horror to an already brutal conflict and highlighted the dangers of unchecked proliferation.

The legacy of this era, including the proliferation in the development of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and Iran, continues to shape regional security concerns. Experts like David E. Sanger have covered Iran’s nuclear program and the efforts to contain it, highlighting how the experience of the Iran-Iraq War may have influenced Iran's strategic thinking regarding its own defensive capabilities, including the pursuit of unconventional weapons, even if officially denied. The fear of WMD proliferation remains a central concern in the Middle East.

International Reactions and Interventions

The international community's response to what is the Iran-Iraq War was complex and often contradictory. While the United Nations repeatedly called for a ceasefire, its resolutions often lacked enforcement mechanisms. Many global powers, driven by geopolitical interests, covertly or overtly supported one side or the other. Some Western nations and Arab states, wary of Iran's revolutionary ideology, provided aid, intelligence, and even weapons to Iraq. This support, often indirect, helped sustain Iraq's war effort, particularly its access to advanced weaponry and technology. The United States, for instance, provided intelligence to Iraq, while also engaging in covert operations related to arms sales to Iran (the Iran-Contra affair). The involvement of various external actors prolonged the conflict and contributed to its devastating scale, turning it into a proxy battleground for broader regional and international power struggles.

The Brutal End: UN Resolution 598

After nearly eight years of relentless fighting, both Iran and Iraq were economically exhausted and militarily depleted. The human cost was staggering, with estimates ranging from 500,000 to over a million casualties on both sides, along with widespread destruction of infrastructure. The war had reached a stalemate, with neither side able to achieve a decisive victory. Facing immense pressure, particularly after significant Iraqi military successes in 1988 and the shooting down of an Iranian civilian airliner by a U.S. warship, Iran reluctantly accepted United Nations Security Council Resolution 598 in August 1988. Iraq followed suit, though it continued to make some territorial gains before the ceasefire fully took hold. The resolution called for a ceasefire, withdrawal to international borders, and negotiations for a comprehensive peace settlement. For Iran, accepting the ceasefire was described by Ayatollah Khomeini as "drinking from the poisoned chalice," a testament to the profound difficulty of ending a war that had been fought with such ideological fervor.

The Enduring Legacy of the Conflict

The incredibly deadly and destructive nature of the conflict left a long legacy that continues to shape the Middle East. For both Iran and Iraq, the war resulted in immense human suffering, economic devastation, and deep psychological scars. The proliferation in the development of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and Iran, spurred by the conflict, became a significant post-war concern, directly contributing to future regional instability. For Iraq, the war's financial cost and Saddam's continued militarization laid the groundwork for his later invasion of Kuwait in 1990, which in turn led to the First Gulf War and subsequent international sanctions. Many experts say that the largest perils may lie in the aftermath, just as they did in Afghanistan and Iraq after other conflicts. The collapse of the Iraqi state after the U.S. rolled into Iraq in 2003 and quickly toppled the tyrant Saddam Hussein, unleashing a vicious insurgency that ultimately ended in a U.S. defeat, can be seen as a later manifestation of the instability sown by decades of conflict and authoritarian rule, including the Iran-Iraq War's impact on Iraq's internal cohesion.

This brutal war, marked by unprecedented levels of destruction and loss, has had lasting implications for both nations and the broader Middle Eastern landscape, fundamentally altering regional power dynamics and fostering a climate of mistrust and rivalry that persists to this day.

Echoes in Today's Middle East

The historical context of what is the Iran-Iraq War is crucial for understanding current geopolitical tensions in the Middle East. The rivalry between Iran and its regional adversaries, including Israel and some Arab states, often plays out with echoes of past conflicts.

Iran-Iraq Relations Today

While the direct armed conflict between Iran and Iraq ended in 1988, their relationship remains complex. Following the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in 2003, Iran's influence in Iraq grew significantly, largely due to the rise of Shi'a-majority governments in Baghdad and the strong religious and cultural ties between the two nations. However, this influence is not without friction, as Iraq seeks to maintain its sovereignty and avoid becoming a proxy battleground for regional powers. Despite the end of direct hostilities, the scars of the war and the memory of its brutality still color the perceptions and interactions between the two peoples.

Broader Regional Instability and Current Tensions

The legacy of the Iran-Iraq War also manifests in the broader regional instability, particularly in the ongoing tensions between Iran and Israel. The war between Israel and Iran continues to rage on, with both sides ramping up deadly attacks on one another, threatening to engulf the region in a broader conflict. As chief international correspondent Bel Trew from Damascus writes, the fear is that this war between Israel and Iran will play out on the ground of all the countries in between. We've seen recent examples, such as four days ago, when Iraq’s airspace had hundreds of projectiles fired from Iran flying through it towards Israel, caught in the crossfire of what many fear could be the opening salvoes of a regional conflagration. Israel and Iran trade new strikes, sometimes on a daily basis, illustrating the volatility.

When considering this moment with Iran, particularly for someone who covered the drumbeat to the war in Iraq in 2003, there are echoes and there are differences. One significant difference is a much deeper public and agreed body of evidence about Iran's nuclear capabilities, making the stakes incredibly high. Israeli leaders, like Netanyahu, have even claimed that "the 'forever war' is what Iran wants, and they're bringing us to the brink of nuclear war," asserting that Israel is "preventing this, bringing an end to this aggression." While President Trump had stated there was little he could do to stop Israeli attacks, the current dynamic highlights how historical grievances and the pursuit of strategic advantage continue to fuel dangerous confrontations, often with the specter of the Iran-Iraq War's devastation serving as a grim warning.

Learning from History: Preventing Future Conflicts

What is the Iran-Iraq War offers profound lessons on the catastrophic consequences of unresolved disputes, unchecked ambitions, and the devastating impact of prolonged conflict. The immense human cost, the economic ruin, and the lasting geopolitical instability it engendered serve as a stark reminder of the imperative for diplomatic solutions and regional cooperation. The conflict underscores the dangers of foreign intervention and the proliferation of advanced weaponry, including WMDs, in volatile regions. Understanding this brutal chapter in Middle Eastern history is not merely an academic exercise; it is essential for policymakers, analysts, and the public to navigate the complex challenges of today and work towards preventing similar tragedies in the future. The scholarly work, such as "Iran and Iraq at War (Routledge, 2020)," provides valuable insights into this period, helping us to learn from the past to build a more stable future.

The legacy of the Iran-Iraq War continues to shape the region, reminding us that the seeds of conflict, once sown, can yield a bitter harvest for generations. By reflecting on its causes, conduct, and consequences, we can better appreciate the fragility of peace and the critical importance of de-escalation and dialogue in preventing future conflicts of such devastating scale. Share your thoughts in the comments below: What do you believe is the most enduring lesson from the Iran-Iraq War for today's world?

Iran says no to nuclear talks during conflict as UN urges restraint

Gossip Pulse